书籍封面
书籍目录
Table of Contents
Preface
Running Example: Joe’s Hardware Store
Chapter-by-Chapter Guide
Typographic Conventions
Comments and Questions
Acknowledgments
Part I
Overview of HTTP
HTTP: The Internet’s Multimedia Courier
Web Clients and Servers
Resources
Media Types
URIs
URLs
URNs
Transactions
Methods
Status Codes
Web Pages Can Consist of Multiple Objects
Messages
Simple Message Example
Connections
TCP/IP
Connections, IP Addresses, and Port Numbers
A Real Example Using Telnet
Protocol Versions
Architectural Components of the Web
Proxies
Caches
Gateways
Tunnels
Agents
The End of the Beginning
For More Information
HTTP Protocol Information
Historical Perspective
Other World Wide Web Information
URLs and Resources
Navigating the Internet’s Resources
The Dark Days Before URLs
URL Syntax
Schemes: What Protocol to Use
Hosts and Ports
Usernames and Passwords
Paths
Parameters
Query Strings
Fragments
URL Shortcuts
Relative URLs
Base URLs
Resolving relative references
Expandomatic URLs
Shady Characters
The URL Character Set
Encoding Mechanisms
Character Restrictions
A Bit More
A Sea of Schemes
The Future
If Not Now, When?
For More Information
HTTP Messages
The Flow of Messages
Messages Commute Inbound to the Origin Server
Messages Flow Downstream
The Parts of a Message
Message Syntax
Start Lines
Request line
Response line
Methods
Status codes
Reason phrases
Version numbers
Headers
Header classifications
Header continuation lines
Entity Bodies
Version 0.9 Messages
Methods
Safe Methods
GET
HEAD
PUT
POST
TRACE
OPTIONS
DELETE
Extension Methods
Status Codes
100–199: Informational Status Codes
Clients and 100 Continue
Servers and 100 Continue
Proxies and 100 Continue
200–299: Success Status Codes
300–399: Redirection Status Codes
400–499: Client Error Status Codes
500–599: Server Error Status Codes
Headers
General Headers
General caching headers
Request Headers
Accept headers
Conditional request headers
Request security headers
Proxy request headers
Response Headers
Negotiation headers
Response security headers
Entity Headers
Content headers
Entity caching headers
For More Information
Connection Management
TCP Connections
TCP Reliable Data Pipes
TCP Streams Are Segmented and Shipped by IP Packets
Keeping TCP Connections Straight
Programming with TCP Sockets
TCP Performance Considerations
HTTP Transaction Delays
Performance Focus Areas
TCP Connection Handshake Delays
Delayed Acknowledgments
TCP Slow Start
Nagle’s Algorithm and TCP_NODELAY
TIME_WAIT Accumulation and Port Exhaustion
HTTP Connection Handling
The Oft-Misunderstood Connection Header
Serial Transaction Delays
Parallel Connections
Parallel Connections May Make Pages Load Faster
Parallel Connections Are Not Always Faster
Parallel Connections May “Feel” Faster
Persistent Connections
Persistent Versus Parallel Connections
HTTP/1.0+ Keep-Alive Connections
Keep-Alive Operation
Keep-Alive Options
Keep-Alive Connection Restrictions and Rules
Keep-Alive and Dumb Proxies
The Connection header and blind relays
Proxies and hop-by-hop headers
The Proxy-Connection Hack
HTTP/1.1 Persistent Connections
Persistent Connection Restrictions and Rules
Pipelined Connections
The Mysteries of Connection Close
“At Will” Disconnection
Content-Length and Truncation
Connection Close Tolerance, Retries, and Idempotency
Graceful Connection Close
Full and half closes
TCP close and reset errors
Graceful close
For More Information
HTTP Connections
HTTP Performance Issues
TCP/IP
Part II
Web Servers
Web Servers Come in All Shapes and Sizes
Web Server Implementations
General-Purpose Software Web Servers
Web Server Appliances
Embedded Web Servers
A Minimal Perl Web Server
What Real Web Servers Do
Step 1: Accepting Client Connections
Handling New Connections
Client Hostname Identification
Determining the Client User Through ident
Step 2: Receiving Request Messages
Internal Representations of Messages
Connection Input/Output Processing Architectures
Step 3: Processing Requests
Step 4: Mapping and Accessing Resources
Docroots
Virtually hosted docroots
User home directory docroots
Directory Listings
Dynamic Content Resource Mapping
Server-Side Includes (SSI)
Access Controls
Step 5: Building Responses
Response Entities
MIME Typing
Redirection
Step 6: Sending Responses
Step 7: Logging
For More Information
Proxies
Web Intermediaries
Private and Shared Proxies
Proxies Versus Gateways
Why Use Proxies?
Where Do Proxies Go?
Proxy Server Deployment
Proxy Hierarchies
Proxy hierarchy content routing
How Proxies Get Traffic
Client Proxy Settings
Client Proxy Configuration: Manual
Client Proxy Configuration: PAC Files
Client Proxy Configuration: WPAD
Tricky Things About Proxy Requests
Proxy URIs Differ from Server URIs
The Same Problem with Virtual Hosting
Intercepting Proxies Get Partial URIs
Proxies Can Handle Both Proxy and Server Requests
In-Flight URI Modification
URI Client Auto-Expansion and Hostname Resolution
URI Resolution Without a Proxy
URI Resolution with an Explicit Proxy
URI Resolution with an Intercepting Proxy
Tracing Messages
The Via Header
Via syntax
Via request and response paths
Via and gateways
The Server and Via headers
Privacy and security implications of Via
The TRACE Method
Max-Forwards
Proxy Authentication
Proxy Interoperation
Handling Unsupported Headers and Methods
OPTIONS: Discovering Optional Feature Support
The Allow Header
For More Information
Caching
Redundant Data Transfers
Bandwidth Bottlenecks
Flash Crowds
Distance Delays
Hits and Misses
Revalidations
Hit Rate
Byte Hit Rate
Distinguishing Hits and Misses
Cache Topologies
Private Caches
Public Proxy Caches
Proxy Cache Hierarchies
Cache Meshes, Content Routing, and Peering
Cache Processing Steps
Step 1: Receiving
Step 2: Parsing
Step 3: Lookup
Step 4: Freshness Check
Step 5: Response Creation
Step 6: Sending
Step 7: Logging
Cache Processing Flowchart
Keeping Copies Fresh
Document Expiration
Expiration Dates and Ages
Server Revalidation
Revalidation with Conditional Methods
If-Modified-Since: Date Revalidation
If-None-Match: Entity Tag Revalidation
Weak and Strong Validators
When to Use Entity Tags and Last-Modified Dates
Controlling Cachability
No-Cache and No-Store Response Headers
Max-Age Response Headers
Expires Response Headers
Must-Revalidate Response Headers
Heuristic Expiration
Client Freshness Constraints
Cautions
Setting Cache Controls
Controlling HTTP Headers with Apache
Controlling HTML Caching Through HTTP-EQUIV
Detailed Algorithms
Age and Freshness Lifetime
Age Computation
Apparent age is based on the Date header
Hop-by-hop age calculations
Compensating for network delays
Complete Age-Calculation Algorithm
Freshness Lifetime Computation
Complete Server-Freshness Algorithm
Caches and Advertising
The Advertiser’s Dilemma
The Publisher’s Response
Log Migration
Hit Metering and Usage Limiting
For More Information
Integration Points: Gateways, Tunnels, and Relays
Gateways
Client-Side and Server-Side Gateways
Protocol Gateways
HTTP/*: Server-Side Web Gateways
HTTP/HTTPS: Server-Side Security Gateways
HTTPS/HTTP: Client-Side Security Accelerator Gateways
Resource Gateways
Common Gateway Interface (CGI)
Server Extension APIs
Application Interfaces and Web Services
Tunnels
Establishing HTTP Tunnels with CONNECT
CONNECT requests
CONNECT responses
Data Tunneling, Timing, and Connection Management
SSL Tunneling
SSL Tunneling Versus HTTP/HTTPS Gateways
Tunnel Authentication
Tunnel Security Considerations
Relays
For More Information
Web Robots
Crawlers and Crawling
Where to Start: The “Root Set”
Extracting Links and Normalizing Relative Links
Cycle Avoidance
Loops and Dups
Trails of Breadcrumbs
Aliases and Robot Cycles
Canonicalizing URLs
Filesystem Link Cycles
Dynamic Virtual Web Spaces
Avoiding Loops and Dups
Robotic HTTP
Identifying Request Headers
Virtual Hosting
Conditional Requests
Response Handling
Status codes
Entities
User-Agent Targeting
Misbehaving Robots
Excluding Robots
The Robots Exclusion Standard
Web Sites and robots.txt Files
Fetching robots.txt
Response codes
robots.txt File Format
The User-Agent line
The Disallow and Allow lines
Disallow/Allow prefix matching
Other robots.txt Wisdom
Caching and Expiration of robots.txt
Robot Exclusion Perl Code
HTML Robot-Control META Tags
Robot META directives
Search engine META tags
Robot Etiquette
Search Engines
Think Big
Modern Search Engine Architecture
Full-Text Index
Posting the Query
Sorting and Presenting the Results
Spoofing
For More Information
HTTP-NG
HTTP’s Growing Pains
HTTP-NG Activity
Modularize and Enhance
Distributed Objects
Layer 1: Messaging
Layer 2: Remote Invocation
Layer 3: Web Application
WebMUX
Binary Wire Protocol
Current Status
For More Information
Part III
Client Identification and Cookies
The Personal Touch
HTTP Headers
Client IP Address
User Login
Fat URLs
Cookies
Types of Cookies
How Cookies Work
Cookie Jar: Client-Side State
Netscape Navigator cookies
Microsoft Internet Explorer cookies
Different Cookies for Different Sites
Cookie Domain attribute
Cookie Path attribute
Cookie Ingredients
Version 0 (Netscape) Cookies
Version 0 Set-Cookie header
Version 0 Cookie header
Version 1 (RFC 2965) Cookies
Version 1 Set-Cookie2 header
Version 1 Cookie header
Version 1 Cookie2 header and version negotiation
Cookies and Session Tracking
Cookies and Caching
Cookies, Security, and Privacy
For More Information
Basic Authentication
Authentication
HTTP’s Challenge/Response Authentication Framework
Authentication Protocols and Headers
Security Realms
Basic Authentication
Basic Authentication Example
Base-64 Username/Password Encoding
Proxy Authentication
The Security Flaws of Basic Authentication
For More Information
Digest Authentication
The Improvements of Digest Authentication
Using Digests to Keep Passwords Secret
One-Way Digests
Using Nonces to Prevent Replays
The Digest Authentication Handshake
Digest Calculations
Digest Algorithm Input Data
The Algorithms H(d) and KD(s,d)
The Security-Related Data (A1)
The Message-Related Data (A2)
Overall Digest Algorithm
Digest Authentication Session
Preemptive Authorization
Next nonce pregeneration
Limited nonce reuse
Synchronized nonce generation
Nonce Selection
Symmetric Authentication
Quality of Protection Enhancements
Message Integrity Protection
Digest Authentication Headers
Practical Considerations
Multiple Challenges
Error Handling
Protection Spaces
Rewriting URIs
Caches
Security Considerations
Header Tampering
Replay Attacks
Multiple Authentication Mechanisms
Dictionary Attacks
Hostile Proxies and Man-in-the-Middle Attacks
Chosen Plaintext Attacks
Storing Passwords
For More Information
Secure HTTP
Making HTTP Safe
HTTPS
Digital Cryptography
The Art and Science of Secret Coding
Ciphers
Cipher Machines
Keyed Ciphers
Digital Ciphers
Symmetric-Key Cryptography
Key Length and Enumeration Attacks
Establishing Shared Keys
Public-Key Cryptography
RSA
Hybrid Cryptosystems and Session Keys
Digital Signatures
Signatures Are Cryptographic Checksums
Digital Certificates
The Guts of a Certificate
X.509 v3 Certificates
Using Certificates to Authenticate Servers
HTTPS: The Details
HTTPS Overview
HTTPS Schemes
Secure Transport Setup
SSL Handshake
Server Certificates
Site Certificate Validation
Virtual Hosting and Certificates
A Real HTTPS Client
OpenSSL
A Simple HTTPS Client
Executing Our Simple OpenSSL Client
Tunneling Secure Traffic Through Proxies
For More Information
HTTP Security
SSL and TLS
Public-Key Infrastructure
Digital Cryptography
Part IV
Entities and Encodings
Messages Are Crates, Entities Are Cargo
Entity Bodies
Content-Length: The Entity’s Size
Detecting Truncation
Incorrect Content-Length
Content-Length and Persistent Connections
Content Encoding
Rules for Determining Entity Body Length
Entity Digests
Media Type and Charset
Character Encodings for Text Media
Multipart Media Types
Multipart Form Submissions
Multipart Range Responses
Content Encoding
The Content-Encoding Process
Content-Encoding Types
Accept-Encoding Headers
Transfer Encoding and Chunked Encoding
Safe Transport
Transfer-Encoding Headers
Chunked Encoding
Chunking and persistent connections
Trailers in chunked messages
Combining Content and Transfer Encodings
Transfer-Encoding Rules
Time-Varying Instances
Validators and Freshness
Freshness
Conditionals and Validators
Range Requests
Delta Encoding
Instance Manipulations, Delta Generators, and Delta Appliers
For More Information
Internationalization
HTTP Support for International Content
Character Sets and HTTP
Charset Is a Character-to-Bits Encoding
How Character Sets and Encodings Work
The Wrong Charset Gives the Wrong Characters
Standardized MIME Charset Values
Content-Type Charset Header and META Tags
The Accept-Charset Header
Multilingual Character Encoding Primer
Character Set Terminology
Charset Is Poorly Named
Characters
Glyphs, Ligatures, and Presentation Forms
Coded Character Sets
US-ASCII: The mother of all character sets
iso-8859
JIS X 0201
JIS X 0208 and JIS X 0212
UCS
Character Encoding Schemes
8-bit
UTF-8
iso-2022-jp
euc-jp
Language Tags and HTTP
The Content-Language Header
The Accept-Language Header
Types of Language Tags
Subtags
Capitalization
IANA Language Tag Registrations
First Subtag: Namespace
Second Subtag: Namespace
Remaining Subtags: Namespace
Configuring Language Preferences
Language Tag Reference Tables
Internationalized URIs
Global Transcribability Versus Meaningful Characters
URI Character Repertoire
Escaping and Unescaping
Escaping International Characters
Modal Switches in URIs
Other Considerations
Headers and Out-of-Spec Data
Dates
Domain Names
For More Information
Appendixes
Internet Internationalization
International Standards
Content Negotiation and Transcoding
Content-Negotiation Techniques
Client-Driven Negotiation
Server-Driven Negotiation
Content-Negotiation Headers
Content-Negotiation Header Quality Values
Varying on Other Headers
Content Negotiation on Apache
Using type-map files
Using MultiViews
Server-Side Extensions
Transparent Negotiation
Caching and Alternates
The Vary Header
Transcoding
Format Conversion
Information Synthesis
Content Injection
Transcoding Versus Static Pregeneration
Next Steps
For More Information
Part V
Web Hosting
Hosting Services
A Simple Example: Dedicated Hosting
Virtual Hosting
Virtual Server Request Lacks Host Information
Making Virtual Hosting Work
Virtual hosting by URL path
Virtual hosting by port number
Virtual hosting by IP address
Virtual hosting by Host header
HTTP/1.1 Host Headers
Syntax and usage
Missing Host headers
Interpreting Host headers
Host headers and proxies
Making Web Sites Reliable
Mirrored Server Farms
Content Distribution Networks
Surrogate Caches in CDNs
Proxy Caches in CDNs
Making Web Sites Fast
For More Information
Publishing Systems
FrontPage Server Extensions for Publishing Support
FrontPage Server Extensions
FrontPage Vocabulary
The FrontPage RPC Protocol
Request
Response
FrontPage Security Model
WebDAV and Collaborative Authoring
WebDAV Methods
WebDAV and XML
WebDAV Headers
WebDAV Locking and Overwrite Prevention
The LOCK Method
The opaquelocktoken scheme
The XML element
Lock refreshes and the Timeout header
The UNLOCK Method
Properties and META Data
The PROPFIND Method
The PROPPATCH Method
Collections and Namespace Management
The MKCOL Method
The DELETE Method
The COPY and MOVE Methods
Overwrite header effect
COPY/MOVE of properties
Locked resources and COPY/MOVE
Enhanced HTTP/1.1 Methods
The PUT method
The OPTIONS method
Version Management in WebDAV
Future of WebDAV
For More Information
Redirection and Load Balancing
Why Redirect?
Where to Redirect
Overview of Redirection Protocols
General Redirection Methods
HTTP Redirection
DNS Redirection
DNS round robin
Multiple addresses and round-robin address rotation
DNS round robin for load balancing
The impact of DNS caching
Other DNS-based redirection algorithms
Anycast Addressing
IP MAC Forwarding
IP Address Forwarding
Network Element Control Protocol
Messages
Proxy Redirection Methods
Explicit Browser Configuration
Proxy Auto-configuration
Web Proxy Autodiscovery Protocol
PAC file autodiscovery
WPAD algorithm
CURL discovery using DHCP
DNS A record lookup
Retrieving the PAC file
When to execute WPAD
WPAD spoofing
Timeouts
Administrator considerations
Cache Redirection Methods
WCCP Redirection
How WCCP redirection works
WCCP2 messages
Message components
Service groups
GRE packet encapsulation
WCCP load balancing
Internet Cache Protocol
Cache Array Routing Protocol
Hyper Text Caching Protocol
HTCP Authentication
Setting Caching Policies
For More Information
Logging and Usage Tracking
What to Log?
Log Formats
Common Log Format
Combined Log Format
Netscape Extended Log Format
Netscape Extended 2 Log Format
Squid Proxy Log Format
Hit Metering
Overview
The Meter Header
A Word on Privacy
For More Information
Part VI
URI Schemes
HTTP Status Codes
Status Code Classifications
Status Codes
HTTP Header Reference
Accept
Accept-Charset
Accept-Encoding
Accept-Language
Accept-Ranges
Age
Allow
Authorization
Cache-Control
Client-ip
Connection
Content-Base
Content-Encoding
Content-Language
Content-Length
Content-Location
Content-MD5
Content-Range
Content-Type
Cookie
Cookie2
Date
ETag
Expect
Expires
From
Host
If-Modified-Since
If-Match
If-None-Match
If-Range
If-Unmodified-Since
Last-Modified
Location
Max-Forwards
MIME-Version
Pragma
Proxy-Authenticate
Proxy-Authorization
Proxy-Connection
Public
Range
Referer
Retry-After
Server
Set-Cookie
Set-Cookie2
TE
Trailer
Title
Transfer-Encoding
UA-(CPU, Disp, OS, Color, Pixels)
Upgrade
User-Agent
Vary
Via
Warning
WWW-Authenticate
X-Cache
X-Forwarded-For
X-Pad
X-Serial-Number
MIME Types
Background
MIME Type Structure
Discrete Types
Composite Types
Multipart Types
Syntax
MIME Type IANA Registration
Registration Trees
Registration Process
Registration Rules
Registration Template
MIME Media Type Registry
MIME Type Tables
application/*
audio/*
chemical/*
image/*
message/*
model/*
multipart/*
text/*
video/*
Experimental Types
Base-64 Encoding
Base-64 Encoding Makes Binary Data Safe
Eight Bits to Six Bits
Base-64 Padding
Perl Implementation
For More Information
Digest Authentication
Digest WWW-Authenticate Directives
Digest Authorization Directives
Digest Authentication-Info Directives
Reference Code
File “digcalc.h”
File “digcalc.c”
File “digtest.c”
Language Tags
First Subtag Rules
Second Subtag Rules
IANA-Registered Language Tags
ISO 639 Language Codes
ISO 3166 Country Codes
Language Administrative Organizations
MIME Charset Registry
MIME Charset Registry
Preferred MIME Names
Registered Charsets
Index
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